Get an overview of how schools can organize their Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions within an MTSS/RTI framework. Tier 2 provides small-group targeted support and Tier 3 provides intensive individualized intervention.
Under an MTSS or RTI framework, educators use systematic ongoing assessments to identify students who may need extra support to be successful and drive the delivery of intervention that meets their identified needs. This page provides a quick overview of how schools may organize their Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions within an MTSS/RTI framework.
Tier 2: small-group targeted support
When a student fails to meet benchmark criteria on a universal screening test, additional instruction is required. This small-group targeted intervention is referred to as Tier 2 instruction.
During Tier 2, a teacher, paraeducator, or specialist increases the time and intensity of instruction beyond the core reading program for students who did not make adequate progress in the general classroom — the Tier 1 instruction. Although Tier 2 may vary from school to school, it’s common to see an additional 20-40 minutes per day in a small group (3-6 students) to work on up to three specific components of reading. Intervention in Tier 2 may emphasize building accurate and automatic recognition of words in text or building students’ language comprehension skills. Teachers and specialists use diagnostic tests to pinpoint specific skills that need extra support.
During Tier 2 intervention, the teacher assesses the students’ growth on taught skills to keep an eye on their progress. Results from progress monitoring tools drive the decisions to continue in Tier 2, adjust instruction, or to increase the level of support by moving to Tier 3 instruction.
Tier 3 : intensive individualized intervention
Students who make minimal progress in Tier 2 instruction need additional intensive support to learn to read. Tier 3 intervention provides a high level of intensity, time, and support for children who fail to respond to Tier 1 and 2 instruction and for those eligible for special education and related services.
During Tier 3 intervention, students receive more frequent, intensive intervention that is individualized to assessed needs. It is delivered daily in small groups ranging from 1 to 3 students per group. Intervention at this level is highly focused, tailored to the assessed needs of each student, and typically uses a research-based program that is different from the core program used in the general classroom. Intervention at Tier 3 is usually delivered by a reading specialist or special educator, i.e., someone who has extensive knowledge and expertise in teaching reading.
Because students at this tier have made minimal gains in the past, the need for frequent and regular progress monitoring increases during this tier. Even if a student is identified and eligible for special education, progress monitoring continues.
Looking at Reading Interventions video series
This video series features reading expert Linda Farrell working one-on-one with various students with reading difficulties. Many struggling readers have problems with word recognition and decoding. These videos demonstrate teaching students how to read words accurately and fluently. You’ll also find detailed Viewer’s Guides and Facilitator’s Guides for each episode, to support professional development in your school or district. Visit the Looking at Reading Interventions video series
Transcript
Letter Names with Reese, Kindergartner
Music
Linda Farrell: What do you like to eat?
Reese: Ice cream.
Linda Farrell: What kind of ice cream?
Reese: Vanilla … and chocolate.
Reese is in kindergarten at Windy Hill Elementary in Calvert County, Maryland. Before he can learn how to read, he’ll need to master all 26 letters of the alphabet. Reese knows most of them, and reading expert Linda Farrell is going to help him with the last few that he needs to learn.
Linda Farrell: Letters have to be absolutely automatic, all 26, because when you’re reading, so many different things are going on. You cannot be struggling with which letter, is this a ‘v’ or a ‘y’? It’s going to slow … even those two confusions will slow up reading forever.
Linda Farrell: I would like you to sing the alphabet song.
Reese: ‘A - b - c - d - e - f - g - h - i - j - k - lmnop - q - r - s - t - u- v’ - [mumbles] – ‘x – y’ and ‘z.’ Now I know my ABCs. Next time won’t you sing with me.
Linda Farrell: You know the song.
Reese: I can go quicker.
Linda Farrell: Oh, that was quick enough. I could hardly keep up.
Linda Farrell: Reese could sing the alphabet song, sort of. He would be what many teachers would say, oh, yeah, he can sing the song. But if you listened really carefully, you would hear that Reese had difficulty when he sang the song articulating ‘l-m-n-o-p,’ which is also — many children have that. And he had difficulty articulating the ‘w.’ When we got to letter naming, it was very interesting. ‘W’ was one of the letters that he didn’t know. We find this often … is that the source of the confusion for a letter name will often go back to you find that same confusion in singing the song. So when children have difficulty with letter names, it isn’t as easy for them as it is for other children to learn this shape, this abstract shape has this abstract name. And some kids learn that easily, and some kids need more practice. And Reese is one who needs practice.
Linda Farrell: What we’re going to do is we are going to sing the alphabet song and touch the letters as we sing. Okay? So get your finger. Now. Sing the first row.
Reese: ‘A - b - c - d’ …
Linda Farrell: Stop. Okay. So you sang the first row. Now go and sing the whole thing to here.
Reese: ‘A - b - c - d’ …
Asking Reese to touch the letters ensures that he’ll look at the letters as he sings.
Reese: … ‘lmnop’ …
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now this row is a little bit hard. So let’s do this. Let’s go ‘l - m - n - o - p.’ Say them again.
Reese: ‘M’
Linda Farrell: Wait. What was that?
Reese: I mean … ‘l - o.’ I mean … ‘m - n - p
Linda Farrell: Let’s try that again. What’s that letter?
Reese: ‘O’
Linda Farrell: What’s that letter?
Reese: ‘N’
Linda Farrell: Reese has difficulty with ‘l-m-n-o-p.’ Now he can do that. He can say that’s an ‘l,’ that’s an ‘m,’ that’s an ‘n,’ that’s an ‘o,’ that’s a ‘p,’ but he can’t say ‘l-m-n-o-p.’ He can’t sing it and say it at the same time. I don’t know why this happens, but I see it all the time. When children can coordinate a movement with a visual, a letter, they can coordinate and say and touch the letter at the same time, they will know it better. So we do that with the letter song, with the alphabet song, and we make sure that our children can touch and say each letter. And we do it over and over and over again, because we always teach to mastery. And the thing that we worked with the most with Reese was the ‘l-m-n-o-p’ line. We are getting him to look at the letter as he says its name or sings its name. That’s going to be a really critical skill when he learns to read, because we need him to look at the letter when he’s reading.
Reese: ‘X – y’ and ‘z.’
Linda Farrell: Is there an and there?
Reese: I said ‘n.’
Linda Farrell: The song says and. So you’re going to go ‘y’ and … Do it like this: ‘y’ and … So take your hand and go ‘y’ and ‘z.’ Do that one again.
Reese: ‘Y’ and ‘z.’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Do you think you can do them all without making any mistakes? I think you can.
Reese: Without pointing?
Linda Farrell: You have to point. That’s part of the trick, okay? So do it. I think you can do it.
Reese: ‘A - b - c - d - e - f - g - h - i - j - k - l - m - n - o - p - q’ …
By looking at the letters as he names them, Reese is developing an image in his mind that is linked with the letter’s name. Being able to easily recognize letters is critical to becoming a fluent reader.
Reese: Now I know my ABCs. Next time won’t you sing with me.
Linda Farrell: That was pretty darn good.
Linda Farrell: We teach the names of the letters before we teach the sounds of the letters. The logical reason is that an ‘a’ is always an ‘a.’ An ‘s’ is always an ‘s.’ The name is a constant. The sound changes. I look at it as the ‘a’ is the big category, just like this is a flower. These are all flowers. This is a rose. Okay, we have an ‘a.’ This is a peony. I have an ‘a,’ and in this word with this spelling pattern, it’s an /a/. In this word with this spelling pattern, it’s an /ay/. So we’re teaching the category first. We are then — go to the sounds. And most of the letters if you know the name, the sound is easy to learn: ‘b,’ /b/, ‘s,’ /s/, ‘z,’ /z/, ‘d,’ /d/. There are some letters that don’t match their sounds — ‘y’ and ‘w’ — and we have to teach those specially. Those don’t come naturally. But most of the sounds come easily. Also, the song gives you an anchor for the names. I can sing this song. I have a chant, even though I don’t know what an ‘a’ is. When I’m two years old, I learn the alphabet song.
Linda Farrell: What’s that letter?
Reese: ‘Y’
Linda Farrell: This is a ‘y.’ That’s a ‘v.’ Can you say ‘v’?
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Look down at the letter and say ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: Point to it and say ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: What’s that letter?
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: Point to it and say ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: And what’s that letter?
Reese: ‘Z’
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Reese: They kind of, so when you put this, this way, kind of looks like an ‘n.’
Linda Farrell: It does kind of look like an ‘n.’ Yeah.
Linda Farrell: It was very interesting working with Reese, because he pointed out to me very articulately how ‘v’ and ‘z’ looks like an ‘n’ and ‘v’ and ‘y,’ and they all … it was exactly the letters that he was getting confused about. And he could even tell us as a kindergartener why they were confusing.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Here we go.
Reese: ‘Y’
Linda Farrell: You’re telling me that’s a ‘y,’ and I’m going to tell you that’s a ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: So can you say ‘v’?
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: What’s at the bottom of the ‘v’? A point. What’s at the bottom of the ‘v’?
Reese: Point.
Linda Farrell: Okay, so …
Reese: It’s kind of … if you turn it this way, and there’s a line, you kind of, it looks like, it would look like an ‘a.’
Linda Farrell: It would.
Reese: And it looks like a triangle when you put it this way.
Linda Farrell: Okay. But what letter is that? Is that …
Reese: ‘Y’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Is this ‘a’ or ’v’?
Reese: ‘Y’
Linda Farrell: ‘Y’? Oh my gosh. I have to show you something. ‘Y’ looks like this. Okay?
Linda Farrell: When I first started working with Reese, I was just trying to get him to know ‘v,’ because my assessment had told me ‘v’ was confusing. I don’t work on all of the confusing letters. I work on one or two confusing letters at a time. I work on one letter if he just can’t remember the name. And I … when I first started working with Reese, I thought that he could not remember the name of ‘v.’ So I have, I get a stack of index cards. Maybe I get 12. Maybe I get 14. Maybe I get eight. Half of those will be the letter that we’re working on, one letter. The other half will be letters that he is very confident with, so he doesn’t have to think about those, so that I go … what’s the name of this letter? What’s the name of this letter? As I did that, it was real easy for him to say ‘v, v, v.’
Linda Farrell: Let’s do ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: What’s the name of that letter?
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: What’s at the bottom of the ‘V’?
Reese: Point.
Linda Farrell: You got it. Say ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: Okay. What’s that letter?
Reese: ‘S. V. E. V. C. V. T. V. X.’
Linda Farrell: Let’s try these one more time. Think you can go through them again?
Reese: There’s a lot of ‘v’s.
Linda Farrell: [laughs]
Once Ms. Farrell saw that Reese knew the name of the letter ‘v,’ then she worked on helping Reese discriminate between the letters ‘v’ and ‘y.’
Linda Farrell: My job is to figure out a way to make them not confusing. For him, they all looked like they were the same shape. So I have to think, okay, as I was working with him, I saw that he confused ‘v’ and ‘y.’ He’d already told me, oh, they both have these and they look, this has a point here and a point here. So my job is to get him to look at the letter and give him a way to verbalize the difference between the shapes of the letters. And I had never done this before with ‘v’ and ‘y,’ but I looked and I said well, ‘v’ has a point at the bottom, and ‘y’ doesn’t have a point at the bottom. This goes through my mind: ‘y’ doesn’t have a point at the bottom. What’s at the bottom is a line. Okay, so I’ll make that difference.
Linda Farrell: This is a ‘v.’
Reese: And ‘y.’
Linda Farrell: You got it. Now, there’s a line at the bottom of a ‘y.’ What’s at the bottom of a ‘y’?
Reese: Line.
Linda Farrell: A line. What’s at the bottom of ‘v’?
Reese: Point.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Say ‘v’ has a point, ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’ has a point.
Linda Farrell: ‘V’
Reese: ‘V’
Linda Farrell: Say ‘y’ has a line.
Reese: ‘Y’ has a line.
Linda Farrell: ‘Y’
Reese: ‘Y’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now, point to the point and say ‘v’ has a point, ‘v.’
Reese: ‘V’ has a point, ‘v.’
Linda Farrell: Say ‘y’ has a line, ‘y.’
Reese: ‘Y’ has a line, line.
Linda Farrell: Say ‘y’ has a line, ‘y.’
Reese: ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’
Linda Farrell: Gotta point to the line.
Reese: ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’
Reese: ‘V’ has a point, ‘v.’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now we’re gonna … every time I show you a letter you have to say that. And then you have to say it. Okay, you ready? Okay, here we go.
Reese: ‘V’ has a point, ‘v.’ ‘V’ has a point, ‘v.’ ‘V’ has a point, ‘v.’ ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’ ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’ ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’ ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now I want you to try saying them without saying, ‘v’ has a point, ‘v.’ Just say the name of the letter. Go slow. Okay?
Reese: Okay. I might go quicker and quicker. ‘Y.’
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now. You have to look down and point and tell me …
Reese: ‘Y’
Linda Farrell: What does ‘y’ have?
Reese: Line.
Linda Farrell: A line. What does ‘v’ …
Reese: ‘V’!
Linda Farrell: It is.
Linda Farrell: I started in this lesson by just getting him to know ‘v.’ But that wasn’t going to work because he still wanted to call it a ‘y’ sometimes. So I needed to set up the contrast. And you saw that it worked as long as he said, ‘v’ has a point, ‘y’ has a line. ‘V’ has a point, ‘v.’ ‘Y’ has a line, ‘y.’ I stopped the scaffolding too quickly, because I went back, and he looked at it and he just saw two lines and he went ‘y.’ We need to get, whenever we do a scaffold where we’re comparing two letters that look similar and we’re saying this one has a point at the bottom and this one has a line, he has to do that enough where it is automatic for him to say it and know that letter. And he has to look at it, because what we want him to do is subliminally when he stops saying it, being looking at that and thinking it, and then eventually he doesn’t have to go through the thinking ‘v’ has a point. It just automatically becomes ‘v.’
Linda Farrell: Two high fives!
Reese: Ha! I missed one.
Linda Farrell: Let’s do another one then!
Linda Farrell: Once he got good at ‘y’ and “v,” just those two contrasting, then I would put three ‘y’s, three ‘v’s and six letters that he already knows, so that he would have to think. We’re making it just incrementally more difficult for him to have to remember, until he just automatically looks at that letter and it’s a ‘v.’ And that one’s a ‘y.’ And it does happen. Sometimes it happens with practice 25 times. Sometimes it happens with practice 250 times. And sometimes it’s a thousand times. But it will happen.
Linda Farrell: Two high fives. That was really, really good.
[Music]
We’d like to thank the wonderful students and families at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. We hope that sharing these experiences will help other children who are learning to read.
Special thanks also to Kelly Cleland, Julie Donovan, Joanne Harbaugh, and their outstanding colleagues at Windy Hill Elementary … and to Leanne Meisinger at Calvert County Public Schools.
We are deeply grateful to Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
Produced by Noel Gunther
Edited by Christian Lindstrom
Graphic Design: Tina Chovanec
Camera: Richard Chisolm
Audio: Dwayne Dell
For more information about teaching reading, please visit
Blending Sounds in Syllables with Autumn, Kindergartner
Music
Linda Farrell: Autumn, I’m so glad you’re here for this lesson. We are going to work on syllables …
Autumn: And, and letter sounds.
Linda Farrell: … and some letter sounds.
Reading expert Linda Farrell has helped thousands of children across the country. Today she’ll be working one-on-one with Autumn, who is in kindergarten at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland.
Ms. Farrell will be helping Autumn with the pre-reading skills that have to do with sounds, what’s known as phonological awareness. Autumn needs to understand that most words are composed of individual sounds — like /c/, /a/, and /t/ — and then she needs to learn how to combine those sounds to form a word, like cat. Ms. Farrell starts by seeing if Autumn can blend two or three spoken syllables into words.
Linda Farrell: Autumn, I’m gonna give you two parts of a word, and you’re gonna tell me what the word is. Watch this: /tay/, /bul/. What’s the word?
Autumn: Table!
Linda Farrell: You got it. Let’s try this one: /com/, /pu/, /ter/.
Autumn: Computer!
Linda Farrell: You’re so good I can’t even teach you that. You already know syllables.
Linda Farrell: Autumn was a master at that. She could do that beautifully. The next level is onset/rime. And that means … can you take the first part of the word, everything before the vowel sound and then take the vowel sound and everything after and put those together and make a word? So that would be /s/, /alt/. What’s the word?
Linda Farrell: Alright. Let’s talk about first sounds. This is a bat.
Autumn: /b/, /b/
Linda Farrell: /b/ is the first sound. This is a ball.
Autumn: /b/, /b/
Linda Farrell: This is hat.
Autumn: /h/, /h/
Linda Farrell: Okay, this is mouse.
Autumn: /m/
Linda Farrell: House.
Autumn: /h/, /h/
Linda Farrell: Mop.
Autumn: /m/
Ms. Farrell is making sure that Autumn can isolate the first sound in a word, what’s called the onset. If Autumn can do that consistently, then she’s ready to start blending onset and rime.
Linda Farrell: Cake.
Autumn: /k/, /k/
Linda Farrell: Alright. We are now gonna put together two parts of a word again. I’m gonna see if you can tell me what it is.
Autumn: Syllable.
Linda Farrell: We just did syllables! We just did syllables! We’re gonna do something called onset/rime right now.
Linda Farrell: Watch this. This is /s/, /un/. What’s this?
Autumn: /s/
Linda Farrell: What’s this?
Autumn: /un/
Linda Farrell: What happens if I put it together?
Autumn: /sun/
Linda Farrell: /m/
Autumn: /m/
Linda Farrell: /eik/
Autumn: /eik/
Linda Farrell: What is it when I put it together?
Autumn: Ache!
Linda Farrell: /eik/ is this part! Watch me. What’s this part?
Autumn: /m/, /eik/
Linda Farrell: This is /eik/. Can you say /m/, /eik/? You point to each one.
Autumn: /m/, /eik/. Ache!
Linda Farrell: This part’s /eik/. This part is /eik/. Watch this. /mmmmmmmm-eik/.
For a lot of children, blending onset and rime is much harder than blending syllables. And that makes sense, says Ms. Farrell.
Linda Farrell: Syllables are very easy to hear. You can feel syllables. They have acoustic clues for you: /com/, /pu/, /ter/. They break cleanly. When I go and I do /sh/, /irt/, I don’t really say /sh/, /irt/. I say shirt. It’s one acoustic clue. Some people’s brains just don’t get that automatically: Oh, I can break up a syllable into two parts? And we have to teach them. So the way we teach them is by taking the beginning, onset, and rime, and we ask them to blend it.
Linda Farrell: Okay. You do it! Go /mmmmmm/, /meik/.
Autumn: Okay. /mmmmm/, /meik/.
Linda Farrell: Okay. So what’s this part?
Autumn: /m/
Linda Farrell: What’s this part?
Autumn: /eik/
Linda Farrell: What’s the word?
Autumn: Make!
Linda Farrell: Okay. Let’s try this one. /sss/. Got it?
Autumn: /s/
Linda Farrell: /ik/
Autumn: /eik/
Linda Farrell: Say /ik/.
Autumn: /eik/
Ms. Farrell uses blank pieces of felt to represent each of the sounds. The felt helps Autumn think about parts of words and how she can blend them together, as she’ll need to do once she’s reading.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Watch me. Let’s do this. /ssss/. Touch it.
Autumn: /ssss/
Linda Farrell: /ik/
Autumn: /ik/
Linda Farrell: Now watch this: /sssssssssss-ik/.
Autumn: /ssss-sit/
Linda Farrell: Can you say … you’re saying sit. Say sick.
Autumn: Sick.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now what’s the word? This is /s/, /ik/. Touch and say.
Autumn: /s/, /ik/. /si/, /b/?
Linda Farrell: What was the word?
Autumn: Sit.
Linda Farrell: Sit would be /s/, /it/. We’re gonna try this a different way. We’re gonna go like this.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Let’s try this. Go /siiiii/.
Autumn: /sit/
Linda Farrell: Now when we learn that children have trouble blending the first part of a word, onset, with the rest of the word … we took the small felt that was onset, it would be /s/, /ik/. The big felt was /ik/. I moved those around and I took the big part of the word and blended it with the small part of the word. So instead of /sik/, I tried to do /siiiii/, /k/. We’re giving the child a /siiiii/ … they can blend a continuant sound — a vowel is always continuant — into any consonant. It doesn’t matter what consonant it is. So /siiii/, /k/.
It’s all part of a process of helping Autumn understand that words are made up of component sounds.
Linda Farrell: Let’s do this one. Are you ready? Okay. This is /raaaaaa-t/. You do it.
Autumn: /raaaaaa-t/. Rat!
Linda Farrell: You got that one so fast! Tell me the parts again.
Autumn: /raaaaaa-t/. Rat!
Linda Farrell: Oh, my gosh. Should we try another one? Okay. /shaaaaa-p/.
Autumn: Strawberry.
Linda Farrell: Strawberry starts with an ‘s’ and shop starts with an ‘s.’ Let’s try this again. Okay. Here we go.
Linda Farrell: Autumn, as a pre-reader, is already exhibiting some signs of things we see in readers, and that is she’s a guesser. When she doesn’t know an answer, she’s very quick to just say something. What’s /s/, /ik/? Sit. And she just wants to get there real quickly. And sometimes we think, well, is she really guessing or is she, oh, my gosh, is she guessing or is she just really almost there? And then when she went, “Strawberry!” … that confirmed that she’s just saying the first thing that comes to her mind. And she’s tired. We’ve been working on the same skill for a while, and her guesses get less and less close to what the reality is. With many children you’ll see guessing happening. And we have to first break the guessing habit, and that’s another thing that our routine would say. If you aren’t sure of the answer, say, “I need help.” Because we want children to be confident of their answers, and if they’re not, to ask us for help.
Linda Farrell: You got it. Let’s try this one. Okay. Got another one. You ready? /maaaaaa-p/. Wait a minute. /maaaaaa-p/. You touch each one and tell me the sounds.
Autumn: /maaaaaam/, /p/. Mom!
Linda Farrell: Get that /p/ at the end. Can you say /p/ at the end?
Autumn: /p/
Linda Farrell: Now go /maaaaa/, /p/.
Autumn: Okay. /maaaaa/, /p/. Mom! /p/
Linda Farrell: What’s the word?
Autumn: Mop.
Linda Farrell: And I’m gonna ask you something. If I show you a picture right here, can you find that? Yes! It’s right there. Say the word.
Autumn: Mop.
Linda Farrell: It is. Show me the parts in mop.
Autumn: /m/.
Linda Farrell: This is /maaaa/.
Autumn: /maaaaaa/, /p/.
Linda Farrell: Autumn was obviously still learning this. Sometimes she could to do it, and sometimes she can’t. We want to make sure that Autumn has mastered all the pre-reading skills before we ever ask her to read, before we ask her to blend letter sounds … /s/, /i/, /t/ into “sit.”
Linda Farrell: If I’d had more time with her, I would have done about five words with her: “This is /mooo-n/. Do what I do.” … and try to get her brain just to feel what it feels like. What I do know is that Autumn will master onset rhyme. When she has that, because she will know beginning sounds and ending sounds and she understands that you can break a syllable apart, blending phonemes will not be difficult for her at all.
The key, says Ms. Farrell, is to give children the time they need to fully master each skill. That includes having the teacher model the skill and having students repeat what the teacher says. That reinforcement allows students a chance to gradually master a concept that initially might be hard.
Linda Farrell: In working with students like Autumn who are so good at one level with a skill and then at the next skill level need a lot of practice, it’s important to remember that we’re working incrementally, we don’t go from what they know to what they don’t know to what they don’t know, to what they don’t know, to what they don’t know. We’re always trying to stay in teaching on the verge between what they do know and what they don’t know. We want to keep their brains open to learning, which means I can learn, which is why I would go back to syllables, maybe start every lesson with blending a few syllables, just making them harder, more than two syllables. Maybe three and four. She’s really good at those. And then move to something that’s easy for her in onset/rime and then get a little more difficult. So it’s incremental. Autumn will be a reader.
Linda Farrell: Okay? We’re gonna try one more. Are you ready to try one more? Let’s do this. Okay. /s/.
Autumn: /s/
Linda Farrell: /op/
Autumn: /op/. Soap!
Linda Farrell: That was so fast. It’s time for our lesson to end, so let’s go back to class, okay?
Autumn: Okay.
Linda Farrell: Thank you.
Music
We’d like to thank the wonderful students and families at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. We hope that sharing these experiences will help other children who are learning to read.
Special thanks also to Kelly Cleland, Julie Donovan, Joanne Harbaugh, and their outstanding colleagues at Windy Hill Elementary … and to Leanne Meisinger at Calvert County Public Schools.
We are deeply grateful to Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
Produced by Noel Gunther
Edited by Christian Lindstrom
Graphic Design: Tina Chovanec
Camera: Richard Chisolm
Audio: Dwayne Dell
For more information about teaching reading, please visit
Mastering Short Vowels and Reading Whole Words with Calista, First Grader
[Music]
Linda Farrell: What do we call that vowel sound? You say …
Calista: Short ‘o.’
Linda Farrell: You got it!
Calista is in first grade at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. She’s an early stage reader who sounds out letters accurately. And she can blend those letters together to form words.
Linda Farrell: Calista, could you please read this column.
Reading expert Linda Farrell is helping Calista take the next step toward fluent reading … reading each word as a whole rather than one sound at a time. Their time together will include work on short vowel sounds, blending and manipulating sounds, reading whole words, and fluency. Ms. Farrell starts by making sure Calista has a strong foundation in her short vowel sounds.
Linda Farrell: We’re gonna learn some motions. Can you hold an apple in your hand? And when I ask you the short ‘a’ sound, you’re gonna say, /aaa/. Say it.
Calista: /a/
Linda Farrell: Now watch me. /Aaaaaa-pul/. You do it.
Calista: /Aaaaaa-pul/
Linda Farrell: Okay. That is going to remind you of the short ‘a’ sound. That’s our motion, so say, /aaa/.
Calista: /a/
Linda Farrell: And when I ask you what the short /a/ sound is, you’re gonna go /aaaa/. Do it.
Calista: /aaa/
Linda Farrell: For short ‘e,’ go like this. Watch me. Go /eeeeeh-j/.
Calista: /eeeeh-j/
Linda Farrell: So we want to start out by making sure she’s solid with her short vowel sounds. So that’s the first thing we did. And she did know her — when I said, “What’s short ‘a’?”, she knew it. She had to think a little bit. So what we did is we want her to — when she can’t remember the vowel sound real easily, we want to not have to give it to her. We want her to have a scaffold to learn it. So we taught Calista the motions that go with the vowel sound, so that if she can’t remember a vowel sound — what is the short ‘o’ sound? — then all she has to do … I can go like this and remind her, or she can go, oh, it’s /ah/, it’s octopus.
Linda Farrell: I tell you what we’re gonna do. We are gonna go to short ‘o.’ Are you ready? Okay. Here we go. /Aaaaahc-tuh-pus/.
Calista: /aaaaahc-tuh-pus/
Linda Farrell: Now we’re not gonna say the /k-tuh-pus/ part. We’re just gonna say /aaah/.
Calista: /aaah/
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘o’ sound?
Calista: /aaah/
Linda Farrell: And make the motion.
Calista: /aaah/
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘a’ sound?
Calista: /aaa/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘o’?
Calista: /aaah/
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now we’re gonna learn short ‘u.’ You ready for short ‘u’? /Uuu-p/. Do it.
Calista: /uuu-p/
Linda Farrell: And the first sound in up is /uuu/.
Calista: /uuu/
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘u’ sound?
Calista: /uuu/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘a’?
Calista: /aaa/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘o’?
Calista: /aaah/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘u’?
Calista: /uuu/
Linda Farrell: The vowel motions that we teach are purposefully motions. They aren’t static, because if I say /a/, /eh/, /i/, /ah/, /u/, you can hardly hear the difference between those sounds. /A/, /eh/, /i/, /ah/, /u/. And children who have phonological awareness difficulties, which is the biggest one of the — it is the biggest problem in reading issues — they don’t hear the vowel sounds easily. Listen to this: /aaaa/, /eeeeh/, /iiiii/, /aaah/, /uuuu/. They sound different. So we want to encourage the children not to say /a/. We want them to say /aaaa/; therefore, the motion that we use — which is holding an apple and then move it across the front of your body, left to right, motion of reading, /aaa/, and then /pul/ is what the rest of the word is, but we only say the first sound — everything encourages them to draw out that sound.
Linda Farrell: Now we’re gonna learn short ‘i.’ Are you ready for short ‘i’?
Calista: Mm-hmm.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Watch this. I went stomping … I went hiking, and I stomped and tromped in some poison ivy, and, boy, do I /iiiiiii-ch/. Do it. Do this.
Calista: /iiiii-ch/
Linda Farrell: /Iiiiiii-ch/. Do it.
Calista: /iiiii-ch/
Linda Farrell: Now, you have to smile real big when you say itch. Go /iiiiiiiii-ch/.
Calista: /iiiiiiii-ch/
Linda Farrell: Do it again. Short ‘i’ sound.
Calista: /iiiiiiii-ch/
Linda Farrell: Okay. And itch is the guide word. I made a mistake. I should have told you that /i/ is just like this: /iii/. We don’t even say the /ch/ part, just do this: /iii/.
Calista: /iii/
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘i’ sound?
Calista: /i/. /iii/.
Linda Farrell: Make it go /iiiiii/.
Calista: /iii/
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘a’ sound?
Calista: /aaa/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘i’?
Calista: /iii/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘i’?
Calista: /iii/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘a’?
Calista: /aaa/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘o’?
Calista: /aaah/
Linda Farrell: Short ‘u’?
Calista: /uuu/
Linda Farrell: You know your short vowel sounds!
Linda Farrell: Calista was very confident with her vowel sounds. She knew them. I would still have worked on them a little bit more, but she was confident enough for me to move on to the next step. So the next step with a kid who’s reading sound by sound isn’t really intuitive. It’s often a phonological problem. It isn’t a problem with the letters. The kid knows the letters. I know the letter sounds. I can blend the letter sounds into a real word. What they aren’t doing is thinking the sounds in their mind. They’re turning that word — if it’s hug, they look at it and they go /h/, /u/, /g/. And they are never getting the full visual picture of that word. To them it’s always an ‘h-u-g,’ a /h/, /u/, /g/. Not hug. So they haven’t moved to where they can read the whole word without breaking it into phonics. And that’s a step that we’re going to have to teach her to do, which is one of my favorite things to do, because it’s just, they just go from being really slow readers to just being normal readers once they can get this phonological representation.
Linda Farrell: We’re going to do something that we call sound chaining. Okay? I’m going to show you how it works. So I say, “Miss Linda, show me the sounds in ‘lip,’” so I go /l/, /i/, /p/, lip. You touch and say.
Calista: /l/, /i/, /p/, lip
Linda Farrell: Okay. What’s the first sound in lip?
Calista: ‘l’
Linda Farrell: ‘L’ is the name of the letter. What’s the sound?
Calista: /l/
Linda Farrell: What’s the next sound in lip?
Calista: ‘i’
Linda Farrell: ‘I’ is the name of the letter. What’s the sound?
Calista: /i/
Linda Farrell: Okay. And when I ask you, you point to it, okay? So what’s the first sound in lip?
Calista: /l/
Linda Farrell: What’s the next sound in lip?
Calista: /i/
Linda Farrell: And the last sound in lip?
Calista: /p/
Linda Farrell: And what’s the …
Calista: lip
Linda Farrell: Okay. So that’s lip. If I want to change lip to sip, I take out the /l/, and I put in a /s/. Touch and say sip.
Calista: /s/, /i/, /p/, sip
Linda Farrell: What if I wanna change sip to tip?
Calista: You take away this one and add this one.
Linda Farrell: Okay. So what did I take out? Sip to tip. Say sip to tip.
Calista: Sip to tip
Linda Farrell: Which one did I take out? If this is sip, take out …
Calista: The /s/ and add the /t/.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now I wanna change tip to Tim.
Calista: Hmm.
Linda Farrell: So let’s touch and say tip.
Calista: /t/, /i/, /p/, tip
Linda Farrell: Now touch and say Tim.
Calista: /t/, /i/, /m/, Tim
Linda Farrell: Which one’s different?
Calista: The last one.
Linda Farrell: So what do I take out of tip to change tip to Tim?
Calista: The last one.
Linda Farrell: And what sound do I take out?
Calista: ‘p’
Linda Farrell: ‘P’ is the name of the letter. What’s the sound?
Calista: /p/
Linda Farrell: Okay. Take it out. And what do I put in to make it Tim?
Calista: ‘m’
Linda Farrell: ‘M’ is the name of the letter. What’s the sound?
Calista: /m/
Linda Farrell: Okay. So now I’ve got Tim. Touch and say Tim.
Calista: /t/, /i/, /m/, Tim
Linda Farrell: I wanna change Tim to Tom.
Linda Farrell: When we work with sound-by-sound children, we make sure that they know the difference between letters and sounds and that they can manipulate sounds. Once they can blend and segment sounds confidently, we move to manipulating. How do we do that? We work with colored tiles. They don’t have letters on them, because we want the child to have no distraction with letters. What we want is the child to be thinking about sounds.
Linda Farrell: Touch and say tap.
Calista: /t/, /a/, /p/, tap
Linda Farrell: Can you change tap to tape?
Ms. Farrell gives Calista plenty of quiet time to think about which sounds are changing.
Linda Farrell: Let’s check that because … one thing you did right is there’s always only one tile that changes. Let’s touch and say tap.
Calista: /t/, /a/, /p/, tap
Linda Farrell: Touch and say tape.
Calista: /t/, /ay/, /p/, tape
Linda Farrell: Which one’s different?
Calista: Hmm. Middle.
Linda Farrell: Yeah. What sound do you take out of tap?
Calista: ‘a’
Linda Farrell: ‘A’ is the name of the letter. What sound do you take out of tap?
Calista: /a/
Linda Farrell: Okay. Take it out. And what sound do you put in to make tape?
Calista: /ee/
Linda Farrell: Say tape.
Calista: /t – ayp/
Linda Farrell: Touch and say.
Calista: /t/, /ay/, p/, tape
Linda Farrell: What sound was that?
Calista: /ay/
Linda Farrell: It was /ay/. Okay. So you put in the sound /ay/. If I want to change tape … sorry, yes … tape to take, which one do I change?
Calista: This one.
Linda Farrell: Yes. What sound do I take out of tape?
Calista: ‘p’
Linda Farrell: What sound?
Calista: /p/
Linda Farrell: Yeah. Okay. And what sound to I put in to make it take?
Calista: /k, k/
Linda Farrell: Now this time, when I ask you to make a change, keep your mouth closed and think about it. Okay? Okay. So don’t open your mouth. You can think the sounds in your head. So we’ve got take to make. Okay. Look down. You can look down. Take to make. Can you say take to make?
Calista: Take to make.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Which one changes? Keep your mouth closed. Don’t … you have to think the sounds, okay?
Calista: /t/
Linda Farrell: Okay. So take out /t/. And what are you going to put in for make? What sound?
Calista: /m/
Linda Farrell: /M/. Okay. Can you change … now, again, mouth closed. Okay. But I’m gonna ask you to say make to mate. Say that. Make to mate.
Calista: Make to mate.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Close your mouth, and think about which one. When you know, touch it.
Calista: [points to the letter]
Linda Farrell: Okay. What sound comes out of make?
Calista: /k/
Linda Farrell: Yep. What sound goes in for mate?
Calista: /t/
Linda Farrell: Okay …
Linda Farrell: One of the things Calista does is I say, “What’s the first sound?” and she gives me the name of the letter. And we’ve got to get sound-by-sound children to think in terms of … there are letter sounds, and there are letter names, because the name of the letter, the first letter in phone is ‘p,’ but the first sound in phone is /f/. And if she doesn’t get the difference automatically and quickly, she’ll always be struggling with reading. It’s easy to teach. It’s no big deal. And I think that you see Calista make great strides in her reading.
Now we’re at the point where Ms. Farrell will push Calista to a higher level of reading — from reading words sound by sound to reading whole words.
Linda Farrell: Students who read sound by sound see a letter, make it a sound, see a letter, make it a sound, see a letter, make it a sound. So this is what’s happening. What that keeps her from being able to do is develop a visual imprint of words and word patterns on her brain. And you never look at the word as a whole. We’re trying to get Calista to look at the word as a whole, as opposed to looking at it letter, by letter, by letter.
Linda Farrell: Now what I’d like you to do is I want you to go back, and this time keep your mouth closed before and think the sounds and don’t open your mouth until you know what the word is and can read it. Okay?
Calista: Did.
Linda Farrell: Keep going.
Calista: Add. Pal. And. Mud.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Phew. You got pretty good there, didn’t ya, closing your mouth.
You can sense the wheels turning in Calista’s mind as she works silently to sound out the letters and put the sounds together into a word. Next comes work on fluency.
Linda Farrell: Let’s start right here.
Calista: Can. The. Lad.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now go back and read it. Again.
Calista: Can. The. Lad.
Linda Farrell: Now can you go back and read it, Can the lad? Okay. Read it.
Calista. Can the lad.
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Calista: Be. In. The. Mud.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Read it like you’d say it.
Calista: Be in the mud.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now read the whole sentence.
Calista: Can the lad be in the mud.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Can you read that one?
Calista: Kim was hot. And got a fan. Kim was hot and got a fan.
Linda Farrell: Okay. We’re gonna go and read a couple of sentences now. Those were phrases, and they turned into sentences. Could you please read this sentence?
Calista: Gus. Got. Mud. On. The. Rug.
Linda Farrell: Okay. And now we’re gonna go read a passage. Okay. What’s the title?
Calista: Don and Pip.
Linda Farrell: Okay?
Calista: Don was a lad. Pip was a pup. Don and Pip had a run. The sun was hot.
Linda Farrell: She was getting faster as she closed her mouth. She made more mistakes than she would make if she read sound by sound. She didn’t make that many mistakes, but she did make more mistakes. But that’s okay, because that’s what happens when you start changing a habit, is you go backwards a little bit. She’ll eventually, and I think fairly quickly, be a much faster reader and a much more proficient reader.
Linda Farrell: Do you ever read a book that you like?
Calista: Mm-hmm.
Linda Farrell: Calista made a lot of progress in this lesson, and she is on her way to being a top-notch reader.
Music
We’d like to thank the wonderful students and families at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. We hope that sharing these experiences will help other children who are learning to read.
Special thanks also to Kelly Cleland, Julie Donovan, Joanne Harbaugh, and their outstanding colleagues at Windy Hill Elementary … and to Leanne Meisinger at Calvert County Public Schools.
We are deeply grateful to Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
Produced by Noel Gunther
Edited by Christian Lindstrom
Graphic Design: Tina Chovanec
Camera: Richard Chisolm
Audio: Dwayne Dell
For more information about teaching reading, please visit
Learning ‘b’ and ‘d’ and Reading Short Vowel Words with Aiko, Second Grader
Music
Linda Farrell: Okay. We’re gonna have a lesson. And we are gonna have some fun …
Today reading expert Linda Farrell will be working with Aiko, a second grader here at Windy Hill Elementary in Calvert County, Maryland.
Ms. Farrell will help Aiko with telling the difference between the letters ‘b’ and ‘d,’ keeping her eyes on the text rather than looking up to think of words, and reading words with short vowels.
Linda Farrell: Do you ever get your ‘b’s and ‘d’s mixed up?
Aiko: Mm-hmm.
Linda Farrell: Sometimes? Well, let’s see if we can’t fix that.
Linda Farrell: Aiko confuses ‘b’s and ‘d’s. She’s in the second grade. And it’s going to get in the way of her reading. So we have to fix that problem. Lots of children confuse ‘b’s and ‘d’s. They look alike. It’s a ball and a stick. So we know we have to straighten that out, because that’s going to hurt your reading because there are lots of words with ‘b’s and ‘d’s.
Linda Farrell: We’re gonna work on fixing that. So we’re gonna learn about our ‘b’ hand. Have you ever used your ‘b’ hand?
Linda Farrell: They have a ‘b’ hand. Their ‘b’ hand, it looks like a ‘b.’ Here’s the circle. Here’s the line. And we teach them to not guess and to slow down and compare your hand to the letter.
Linda Farrell: This is your ‘b’ hand, okay? So I’m gonna put this little rubber band on you, so you can remember which one’s your ‘b’ hand. So which one’s your ‘b’ hand?
Aiko: This one.
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Linda Farrell: I don’t tell a kindergartener, a first grader, or a second grader, “It’s your left hand,” because they don’t know which one is their left hand. Sometimes I don’t even know which one’s my left hand. When we first teach it, we put something on their hand. We might put a sticker. I put a rubber band on Aiko’s hand so that when I say, “Where’s your ‘b’ hand?” she’s got something that reminds her. Three lessons she won’t need the rubber band anymore. She’ll know what it is. Some kids get it right away.
Linda Farrell: Would you put your ‘b’ hand up like this … and make a fist. And then put your finger out. Okay? That is your ‘b’ hand. And I’m gonna show you why it’s your ‘b’ hand. Go like this. We put this down here. And this letter is a ‘b.’ And your hand looks like this letter. Can you see that? We have the circle right here. Where’s the circle on the letter? Point to the circle on the letter. And where’s the circle on your hand? Yeah. Right there. Where’s the stick on the letter? Show me a stick on your finger. This is your ‘b’ hand because the stick is on the same side of the circle as your finger. So your finger and your, and the stick are on the same side of the circle.
Linda Farrell: Lots of kids get ‘b’s and ‘d’s mixed up — kindergarten, first and second grade. It does not mean that they have dyslexia. Students who have dyslexia have phonological processing issues. They do not differentiate sounds easily. Their problems are primarily related to phonological awareness. ‘B/d’ is about shapes. That is not about sounds.
Linda Farrell: Will you put your ‘b’ hand by the ‘b’? Yep. And is your finger on the same side of the circle as the stick or on a different side of the circle?
Aiko: Same side.
Linda Farrell: The same side. Yeah. Let’s go down here. Is this a ‘b’ or a ‘d’?
Aiko: ‘b.’
Linda Farrell: Okay. And when you answer, I want you to look down here and compare it. Here’s what you did. You went [looking upward]. Well, you’re not gonna figure it out unless you look and you compare. Okay. So you have to look and say, “Ooh, I can tell.” So is that a ‘b’ or a ‘d’?
Ms. Farrell’s explicit lesson about recognizing the shape of the letter ‘b’ will take some time to sink in for Aiko. And there’s a common habit she’ll need to deal with. When Aiko is working on identifying a letter, she often looks up to think, looking away from the letter.
Linda Farrell: The answer to what is an incorrect letter or an incorrect word is in the print. And we have to teach Aiko to keep her eyes on the print, on the words, when she’s reading, or the letters. I’ve worked with many kids that have this same difficulty. And I’ll say, “Keep your eyes on the words,” and they can’t do it, because their habit is so strong that they can’t try to do what I’m asking them to do and remember to keep their eyes down. So we just practice keeping your eyes down.
Linda Farrell: We’re gonna practice looking down here, okay? So I’m gonna ask you a question, and you can’t look up until I go like this [pounds fist], okay? So you keep looking down. Don’t look up. Look down. Look down. Look down. Look down. [pounds fist] Now you can look up. Okay. Let’s try it again. Look down. Look down. Look down. [pounds fist]
Eventually, Aiko will need to have images of words stored in her brain. This is critical to the immediate word recognition necessary for fluent reading. When students say a word without looking at it, they miss opportunities to develop those images.
Linda Farrell: So hold your hand up here. So I’m gonna go ‘a,’ cause I don’t need my ‘b’ hand. But do I need my ‘b’ hand for that letter?
Aiko: Mm-mm.
Linda Farrell: Yes, I do, cause that’s a ‘b’ or a ‘d.’ So I have to put my ‘b’ hand and … let me see. Is that a ‘b’ or a ‘d’? Which one do you think? Ohp. Where are you gonna look?
Aiko: Down.
Linda Farrell: Yes. Okay. Is that a ‘b’ or a ‘d’?
Aiko: ‘b.’
Linda Farrell: Let’s try that. Put your ‘b’ hand next to that. Okay. Is your finger on the same or a different side?
Aiko: Different.
Linda Farrell: Different. So is that a ‘b’ or a ‘d’?
Aiko: ‘d.’
Linda Farrell: Yes. And we’re gonna keep looking down. Remember? You don’t get to look up until I stomp. Okay? So now, I want you … we’re gonna go just right to here. Okay? So watch me. ‘a, d, s, b.’ You do it. Okay. Put your hand up here for the ‘a.’ Okay. Do it.
Aiko: ‘a, d, s, b’?
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now. See how far away your hand is? You gotta go like this. And you know where you looked when you read? You looked at me. But where are you supposed to be looking?
Aiko: Here.
Linda Farrell: Yep. At the letter. So. Okay. So we did those four. You do these four.
Linda Farrell: And this is isolated practice. I see lots of teachers who use a ‘b’ and ‘d’ hand or a ‘b’ hand. But they only do it when the kid misses a word. So, “Oh, you read ‘bog’ as ‘dog.’ Use your ‘b’ hand.” You don’t have to use your ‘b’ hand. If it’s not “bog,” it’s “dog.” We’ve gotta have isolated practice to rewire the brain … to stop guessing and start looking. And that’s what we did with Aiko. Aiko has pretty significant ‘b/d’ issues. With this kind of practice, she could solve her ‘b/d’ issues, I believe, in three to four weeks if we did this every day.
Aiko: ‘b’
Linda Farrell: You got it. Do you think you can do 10 in a row?
Aiko: Mm-mm.
Linda Farrell: I think you can. Let’s try it. Okay.
Aiko: ‘x, b, d, a’
Linda Farrell: [whispering] Hand down. Is your finger on the same side or a different side?
Aiko: Different, so it’s a ‘d.’
Linda Farrell: Yes. Okay.
Aiko: ‘o, b, c, d, j’
Linda Farrell: Ten out of 10! That’s …
After a little more practice with ‘b’ and ‘d,’ Ms. Farrell will help Aiko work on another skill … reading short vowel words without sounding them out aloud first. And Aiko will need to lean on her new skills … distinguishing between ‘b’ and ‘d’ using her ‘b’ hand, and concentrating on looking down at the words while she thinks.
Linda Farrell: Can you just read these words right here?
Aiko: Not, ran, tap, man, on.
Linda Farrell: Could you read these words right here please?
Aiko: Bib, ad …
Linda Farrell: Could you check and see if that’s a ‘b’ or a ‘d’? Use your ‘b’ hand. Is that a ‘b’ or a ‘d’?
Aiko: ‘d’
Linda Farrell: It is a ‘d.’ So what’s …
Aiko: ‘d’ … did
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Aiko: ad, /p - al/
Linda Farrell: What’s the word?
Aiko: Pal.
Linda Farrell: Look down. Always keep your eyes on the words.
Aiko: Gum. /k/. Kit. Hump.
Linda Farrell: Okay. You got five words right. Can you touch and say that word?
Aiko: Hug.
Linda Farrell: It is hug. Read them all again.
Aiko: Did, ad, /p/, pal, gum, /k - it/, hug.
Linda Farrell: Okay. You got six out of six right. When you read this word, you went /k - i - t/. Did you hear yourself do that? Okay. It’s okay. I want you to do that in your head. So what we’re gonna do is we’re gonna close our mouth until we’re ready to read the word. It goes like this. [pause] Did. [pause] Ad. I have to think those sounds in my head. So can you do that? Let’s read these.
Aiko: Cut, dig, pup …
Linda Farrell: [whispering] Mouth closed.
Aiko: … lip, kit, lot.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now. Two things: you got five right. Can you? What’s that word?
Aiko: Kip.
Linda Farrell: It is kip. And the other thing is, you looked up. So we’re gonna practice looking down. Okay. You’re gonna look down, look down here until I stomp, okay? [pounds fist] You can look up. Okay? Do it again. [pounds fist] Now you’re gonna read, and you can’t look up until I stomp, okay? So remember, you’re not gonna look up until I stomp, so I’ll hold this, okay? So start reading.
Aiko: Cut, big, pup, lip, kip, lot.
Linda Farrell: [pounds fist] That was perfect. You kept your eyes down the whole time. Can you check and see if that’s a ‘b’ or a ‘d’? Use your hand. Use your ‘b’ hand.
Aiko: /d/
Linda Farrell: Yeah. So what’s the word?
Aiko: Dig.
Linda Farrell: It is. We’re gonna go over here … and again, don’t look up until I stomp. So read those.
Aiko: Hot.
Linda Farrell: You can use your ‘b’ hand, right there.
[Music]
In one short lesson, Aiko has made a lot of progress. She’s learning to keep her head down as she reads, focusing on the letters. She’s using her ‘b’ hand to help her identify her ‘b’s and ‘d’s more accurately. And she’s reading words as a whole rather than sound by sound. As she practices and works toward mastery of these skills, her reading will get better and better.
Linda Farrell: Mud. You kept your eyes down and you got ‘em all right! Six out of six! Yes!
We’d like to thank the wonderful students and families at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. We hope that sharing these experiences will help other children who are learning to read.
Special thanks also to Kelly Cleland, Julie Donovan, Joanne Harbaugh, and their outstanding colleagues at Windy Hill Elementary … and to Leanne Meisinger at Calvert County Public Schools.
We are deeply grateful to Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
Produced by Noel Gunther
Edited by Christian Lindstrom
Graphic Design: Tina Chovanec
Camera: Richard Chisolm
Audio: Dwayne Dell
For more information about teaching reading, please visit
Mastering ‘Silent e’ and Becoming More Fluent with Michael, Third Grader
[Music]
Michael: I couldn’t find my house.
Linda Farrell: When you went back, you couldn’t find your house?
Michael: No.
Michael is in third grade at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. Reading expert Linda Farrell will be helping him work toward mastering the ‘silent e’ letter pattern. It’s part of a plan to speed up his reading.
Linda Farrell: When we assessed Michael, I found him to be a very interesting student. He’s in the third grade, and he’s a very slow reader. He was quite accurate … not perfectly accurate, but he did pretty well in text. And he understood what he read.
Linda Farrell: Just start reading right here, and you’re gonna read right to the number, okay?
Michael: Don was a lad. Pip was a pup. Don and Pip had a run. The sun was hot.
Linda Farrell: Okay …
Linda Farrell: And when we dug deeper into Michael, what we found is that he has almost mastered basic skills. But it’s the almost that’s keeping him from being faster and more accurate. The good thing about him is that he’s not a guesser. That’s why he’s slow. He’s trying to get it right. He’s not trying to race through and guess.
Michael can read many words accurately. But he reads slowly. To find out why, Ms. Farrell first checks to make sure that Michael knows his vowel sounds, both long and short.
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘a’ sound?
Michael: Short ‘a’ … /a/.
Linda Farrell: /a/. What’s the short ‘e’ sound?
Michael: /eh/
Linda Farrell: What’s the short ‘i’ sound?
Michael: /i/
Linda Farrell: The short ‘o’ sound?
Michael: /ah/
Linda Farrell: And the short ‘u’ sound?
Michael: /u/
Linda Farrell: You do know your vowel sounds — your short vowel sounds. Do you know your long vowel sounds?
Michael: [nods]
Linda Farrell: What are they?
Michael: /ay/, /ee/, /eye/, /oh/, and /you/
Linda Farrell: You got it. Okay.
Then she checks Michael’s phonemic awareness. That’s his ability to notice, to think about, and to work with the individual sounds in words.
Linda Farrell: Now we’re gonna stretch a couple of words, okay? The way you stretch words is you go like this. Get ready. Okay, sit up straight and get ready. Okay? I’ll say a word and you repeat it. Bake.
Michael: Bake.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now we stretch it. /b, ay, k/ … bake. You stretch it.
Michael: /b, ay, k/ … bake
Linda Farrell: Okay. And I’m gonna ask you what’s the vowel sound in bake. Do you know the vowel sound in bake?
Michael: /ay/
Linda Farrell: /ay/. And what do we call that vowel sound? Short ‘a’ or long ‘a’?
Michael: Long ‘a.’
Linda Farrell: Great. Ready? Back. Repeat?
Michael: back
Linda Farrell: Stretch back.
Michael: /b, a, k/ … back
Linda Farrell: What’s the vowel sound in back?
Michael: ‘a’
Linda Farrell: ‘A’ is the name of the letter. Can you stretch back?
Michael: /b, a/ …
Linda Farrell: Stop right there. What’s that sound right there?
Michael: /a/
Linda Farrell: /a/. When I ask you for a sound, it has to be one of the sounds on your fingers. So the vowel sound in back is what?
Michael: /a/
Linda Farrell: What do we call that sound?
Michael: Short ‘a.’
Linda Farrell: Ready?
Linda Farrell: Even though Michael knew his short vowel sounds and he knew his long vowel sounds when I asked — pretty well for somebody who hadn’t really been having phonics lessons. And he could, I’d say stretch the sounds, /b/ /i/ /t/. He could stretch that. “What’s the vowel sound in bit?” “‘I.’” He wanted to go and give me the letter, which tells me he’s not thinking in terms of sounds. We have to straighten out all that. What’s the sound? What’s the name of the letter? What do we call the sound? And we worked with some of that with him so that when I went to this is an /a/, and this is an /ay/, he could think in terms of sounds.
Linda Farrell: Tight. Repeat.
Michael: Tight.
Linda Farrell: Stretch.
Michael: /t, eye, t/ … tight
Linda Farrell: What’s the vowel sound in tight?
Michael: /eye/
Linda Farrell: What do we call it?
Michael: A long ‘i.’
Linda Farrell: Ready? Fish.
Michael: /f, i, sh/ … fish
Linda Farrell: Vowel sound?
Michael: /i/
Linda Farrell: What do we call it?
Michael: Short ‘i.’
Linda Farrell: You got it. You’re getting it aren’t you?
Next Ms. Farrell has Michael read a passage containing consonant-vowel-consonant words like hat and ran, further checking that short vowel knowledge.
Linda Farrell: Try the gray box.
Michael: Don got a tan hat. He sat on a log. He had a nap in the sun.
Linda Farrell: I think this is just a little teeny tiny bit too easy for you. So we have to get harder.
Michael: Yeah, it was really easy.
Linda Farrell: It was.
But when Ms. Farrell gave Michael a passage with the ‘silent e’ vowel pattern – including words like ‘luke’ and ‘rice’ – his accuracy fell off.
Linda Farrell: Now I’m just gonna ask you to read this right here. Okay?
Michael: Mike went to a lake with luck. They rode, rode their bikes to the lake. They had rick, I mean, rike, lim, limes, chips, and cake in a blackpack.
Linda Farrell: A student who can tell you /i/ is the short ‘i’ sound, /eye/ is the long ‘i’ sound, can tell you all the rules, and yet they don’t read it correctly, the word correctly — that’s often a result of a slow print processor. What happens is … when print gets there, they have a slow reaction time to pulling out what that print is trying to say, whatever sound, whatever word.
Michael can get faster by fully absorbing and mastering the ‘silent e’ spelling pattern, so that when he sees a word with a vowel, a consonant, and an ‘e’ at the end – such as lake — he automatically knows that the vowel will be long. How can he master this?
Linda Farrell: Not teaching him rules. He knows the rules. I didn’t ask him, but he could have told me the rule that ‘e’ jumps over. What we do is get him to recognize the pattern. If it’s one letter, it’s a short sound. If it’s that letter plus an ‘e,’ it’s a long sound. And we’re trying to get him to recognize the pattern.
Linda Farrell: Now I’m going to do some teaching. And I’m gonna see if you can get this 100% next time, if you can get all the words right. And here is the teaching we’re gonna do. We are going to learn about ‘silent e.’I bet you’ve heard ‘silent e’ before, haven’t you. Okay. So we’re gonna learn something called two-finger touch and say. So when you touch with one finger, you’re gonna say /a/. That’s the short ‘a’ sound, so touch with one finger. Are you — if you were to write your name, yeah. So touch with this finger, okay?
Michael: Okay. /a/
Linda Farrell: Okay. When we touch like this, we’re gonna say /ay/. When it’s an ‘a’ and an ‘e’ together, go /ay/. Can you do that?
Michael: /ay/
Linda Farrell: Okay, so go …
Michael: /a/, /ay/
Linda Farrell: Now watch me touch and say this word. /M, a, d/ … mad. You do it.
Michael: /M, a, d/ … mad.
Linda Farrell: So I used one finger to touch that ‘a.’ Now watch this. I have an ‘a’ and an ‘e’ here. So I’m gonna use two fingers, so watch me. /M, ay, d/ … made. You do it.
Michael: /M, ay, d/ … made.
Linda Farrell: Okay, and you go like this: /m, ay, d/ … made. You do it.
Michael: /M, ay, d/ … made.
Linda Farrell: Okay. So you know about two-finger touch and say.
Ms. Farrell thinks this multisensory technique will help Michael internalize his ability to recognize the ‘silent e’ letter pattern. It takes a while to learn this approach, but it will be worth it.
Linda Farrell: Now, we’re gonna just practice, right here. So I want you to practice saying /ay/, /a/, /ay/, /a/, /a/, /ay/. Okay.
Linda Farrell: You just got all those right. We’re gonna try something a little different this time. I just want you to touch the vowel sound. Say it. Don’t even read the word. So you’ll go like this: /ay/, /a/. Okay? You do it.
Michael: /ay/, /a/, /ay/, /a/, /a/, /ay/
Linda Farrell: Okay. Can you do that one more time? I wanna make sure you’re touching with one finger when you should and two fingers …
Linda Farrell: That skill is recognizing spelling patterns. It is incredibly important, because many people will tell you the English language is nutso. It — sometimes a letter is spelled this way and sometimes the letter is spelled that way. And the English language is not nutso. It follows patterns. It follows lots of patterns. Most of the time in a one syllable word when you have a vowel and then you have a consonant and an ‘e’ at the end, that vowel is going — with that ‘e’ — is going to spell the long vowel sound. It’s not random. It is absolutely not random. Strong readers — and especially strong spellers — pick up these patterns automatically. Those who struggle to learn to read or look like they’re struggling, who need more practice really, they don’t pick them up on their own; and that’s where we come in. We’re teachers. That’s when we get to teach as opposed to just guide. So understanding the spelling patterns in English will tell you with about 80% accuracy what that vowel sound should be.
Linda Farrell: See if you can do that whole row … 10 words. And you’re gonna do /ay/ and then read the word. Okay? And make sure you get your fingers right. You can go slowly. I don’t care how fast you go.
Michael: /a/, stack …
Linda Farrell: Let’s try that — what happened? What happens when you …
Michael: …/ay/, stake, /a/, stack …
Linda Farrell: [whispering] Touch that with one finger.
Michael: … /a/, stack …
Linda Farrell: What?
Michael: … /a/, mad, /ay/ — wait, I mean /a/, fat, /ay/, made.
Linda Farrell: You would see, even though he knew the word was shake, he would read shack, then he’d say, “No, shake,” because he wants that word to come out before his brain has processed. One of the things we would want to do if we were working with him long term is get him to slow down first, because if he’d slow down, he would eventually get faster, because he would be in the habit of doing things accurately. And he would be using the patterns. He has every ability to be an accurate reader if he can recognize the patterns — and to read at a reasonable rate.
So Ms. Farrell focuses on accuracy, knowing that speed will come later, once Michael has really mastered the skill.
Linda Farrell: That was 100% perfect. High five on this one, too. Okay, now you’re gonna read some — you don’t have to do the /ay/, /a/. You just read the words.
Michael: Okay.
Linda Farrell: Okay? Okay. So what, what line do you wanna do?
Michael: I wanna do that one.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Do number four.
Michael: Shad, glade, same, Sam, pane.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Now we’re gonna go back to that passage that we just read. Let’s see if you can read it again. Go.
Michael: Mike went to a lake with Luke. They rode their bikes to the lake. They had rice.
Linda Farrell: What you saw is that once we taught Michael how to read long and short ‘a,’ he applied it in the paragraph the next time. And we didn’t have him read a new paragraph. We had him read the same paragraph. Once he reads that paragraph accurately, we’re going to go to another one. But if it takes him 10 times to read that paragraph accurately, we’re going to keep reading that paragraph accurately, applying his new skill that he had used.
Michael: They also had Coke to drink.
Linda Farrell: 30 out of 30. You got 30 out of 30
Linda Farrell: He made an improvement. And had we had more time, I think we would have seen him making even more improvement as he practiced. Michael was a real good example of the importance and necessity of practicing to mastery. Even though he’s in the third grade, we need to make sure that we get his basic phonics and his even advanced phonics straightened out and that he’s accurate at those, automatically.
[Music]
We’d like to thank the wonderful students and families at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. We hope that sharing these experiences will help other children who are learning to read.
Special thanks also to Kelly Cleland, Julie Donovan, Joanne Harbaugh, and their outstanding colleagues at Windy Hill Elementary … and to Leanne Meisinger at Calvert County Public Schools.
We are deeply grateful to Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
Produced by Noel Gunther
Edited by Christian Lindstrom
Graphic Design: Tina Chovanec
Camera: Richard Chisolm
Audio: Dwayne Dell
For more information about teaching reading, please visit
Reading Multisyllable Words with Xavier, Third Grader
[Music]
Xavier: I think, he — he’s kind of bad.
Linda Farrell: Oh. Dog Man is?
Xavier: Yeah — at his job.
Linda Farrell: He sure is. He chews the table leg. Oh my gosh.
Reading expert Linda Farrel is working with Xavier, a third grader at Windy Hill Elementary in Calvert County, Maryland. She’ll be helping him learn how to read multi-syllable words.
Xavier: … going to study Flippy’s brain.
Linda Farrell: When we visit classrooms, it’s a big issue: “The kids do well with small words, but they can’t read big words.” So I’ll ask a student to read. And they look at a word and it’s volcanic and they read volcano. Or it’s fanatic and they read fantasy. So they guess the most common word that has that configuration that that word looks like it has. What they don’t know is how to break a word into syllables so that you’re not reading a big word that you have to memorize, but you’re just going, “Oh, there’s a little word, a little word, a little word.
Linda Farrell: I’m gonna have you read some nonsense words. They all have short vowels. So, could you just read these three nonsense words.
Xavier: Nad. Naf. Nef.
Linda Farrell: Good. Alright. What are these three?
Xavier: Zib. Zid. Zash.
Linda Farrell: Your, uh, this is pretty easy, isn’t it. Yeah. This is too easy. We’re done with that one. Okay? Now I’m gonna teach you about reading two-syllable words. This is kinda fun.
Linda Farrell: We started with nonsense words with Xavier because often syllables are nonsense words … that when you combine them they become real words. So teaching nonsense words is not an exercise in futility. It is preparing children to read multi-syllable words.
Ms. Farrell now knows Xavier can read one-syllable words with short vowels. Next she checks to make sure he knows what a syllable is, because breaking long words into syllables is the key to the strategy she’ll be teaching him.
Linda Farrell: I just remembered something. I have to make sure you know what a syllable is. Okay. So look at me. My name is Linda. It has two syllables in it. Lin. Da. Linda. So what’s your name?
Xavier: Xavier.
Linda Farrell: How many syllables in your name?
Xavier: Four.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Let’s stomp them.
Xavier: /Ex/, /ay/, I mean, /ex/, /zay/, /vee/, /er/. Xavier.
Linda Farrell: You got it.
Linda Farrell: How many syllables in computer?
Xavier: Com-pu-ter. Three.
Linda Farrell: Yes. You got it. So you know what a syllable is. Alright. Cause that’s really important if we’re gonna read these big words. So if I look at this word, and I want to know how to read that, the first thing I have to do is figure out how many syllables are in it. And I can do that by figuring out what the vowels are. Do you know what the vowel letters are?
Xavier: ‘A, e, i, o ,u.’
Linda Farrell: You got it. Those are the vowel letters. So here’s what I know. Every syllable has a vowel in it. So in order to figure out how many syllables there are, I have to count the vowels. So can you tell me … how many vowel letters do you see in that word?
Xavier: Two.
Linda Farrell: Yep. Are they together or apart?
Xavier: Apart.
Linda Farrell: They are apart. If I have two vowels — letters, and they’re apart, I’m going to have two syllables. So I’m gonna draw two lines right here, and I have to have a vowel letter in every syllable. So can you break that word into two syllables for me?
Linda Farrell: Now this is a nonsense word, so we’re gonna read it. What’s the first syllable?
Xavier: Jod. Pum.
Linda Farrell: What’s the word?
Xavier: Jodpum.
Linda Farrell: So read it again.
Xavier: Jodpum.
Linda Farrell: And the word is …
Xavier: Jodpum.
Linda Farrell: That’s a nonsense word. I just made it up. I literally just made that word up right now. I’ve never even seen that word before. But we now know what to do if we have a word that we don’t know. So let’s try another word.
Xavier: Volcano?
Linda Farrell: Oh! You got the first two syllables — you got the first syllable right. How many vowels do you see?
Xavier: Three.
Linda Farrell: Together or apart.
Xavier: Apart.
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Read each syllable.
Xavier: /Vol/, /cay/ …
Linda Farrell: Hmmm. What’s that middle syllable?
Xavier: … /can/, /ic/.
Linda Farrell: Touch each syllable and read it.
Xavier: /Vol/, /can/, /ic/ …
Linda Farrell: Mm-hmm.
Xavier: /ks/
Linda Farrell: Wait. Wait. What’s that?
Xavier: /ic/
Linda Farrell: Yeah. Let’s do it again.
Xavier: /Vol/, /can/, /ic/. Volcanic.
Linda Farrell: You just read volcanic. So what are the syllables in volcanic?
Xavier: ‘O’ …
Linda Farrell: Those are the vowels. What’s the first syllable?
Xavier: /Vol/, /can/, /ic/.
Linda Farrell: I’m gonna ask you to do something. I’m erasing this. Okay. So say volcanic.
Xavier: Volcanic.
Linda Farrell: How many syllables in volcanic?
Xavier: Three.
Linda Farrell: Okay. I would like you to please see if you can spell each syllable in volcanic. So draw three lines right up here.
Linda Farrell: Do you think you can spell volcanic? What’s the first syllable?
Linda Farrell: What’s that syllable? What’d you just spell?
Xavier: /Vol/.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Next one.
Linda Farrell: Now write the whole word.
Linda Farrell: Oh my gosh. You just spelled volcanic. You couldn’t even read it and now you can spell it. That is pretty good. Do you want me to see if I can get a really hard one for you?
Linda Farrell: In teaching Xavier word attack skills, it’s very important that we choose words with short vowels that have only one vowel all by itself. So you’ll see we’re not going to have words with ‘silent e,’ we’re not going to have words with vowel teams. So we need two questions that we can ask Xavier that can help him break a big word into syllables so that all it is is little small words that he has to put together to read a big word. The two questions are … how many vowels do you see? Are they together or apart? And what we teach him is that … if you see three vowels and they’re apart, you’re going to have three syllables, because every syllable has a vowel. And then we teach him to draw a line for each syllable, write each syllable on a line, and then read each little word and then put them together.
Linda Farrell: Let’s see if we can try this one.
Linda Farrell: How many vowels did you see?
Xavier: Three.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Could you underline them please?
Xavier: I mean four.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Four vowels. Are they together or apart?
Xavier: Apart.
Linda Farrell: So how many syllables?
Xavier: Four.
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Linda Farrell: Could you move that ‘n’ over there? Okay.
Linda Farrell: Okay. So read each syllable.
Xavier: /Con/, /tic/ …
Linda Farrell: What’s that?
Xavier: /ti/, /tin/
Linda Farrell: What’s this?
Xavier: /ti/
Linda Farrell: /t/, /i/. What is it?
Xavier: /ti/
Linda Farrell: Okay. So it’s …
Xavier: /Con/, /ti/, /nin/, /tul/. Continental.
Linda Farrell: You just read continental. Are you ready for another one?
Xavier: Mm-hmm.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Here we go. Let’s try this one.
Linda Farrell: How many vowels do you see?
Xavier: /o/ and /i/, /e/
Linda Farrell: Okay. So how many? You can underline them if you want.
Linda Farrell: Why don’t you start here and go this way. Yeah.
Linda Farrell: Okay. So how many?
Xavier: Four.
Linda Farrell: Together or apart?
Xavier: Apart.
Linda Farrell: Okay.
Linda Farrell: Do you wanna try to read it without breaking it into syllables? Try it.
Xavier: Accosh — accomplishment.
Linda Farrell: What was the word?
Xavier: Accosh — accomplishment.
Linda Farrell: It’s accomplishment. You are right.
As Xavier grasps the strategy, you can see him thinking through the two questions: How many vowels? Are the vowels together or apart? And he’s able to read big words without writing out the syllables.
Xavier: Wil-ming-ton.
Linda Farrell: What’s the word?
Xavier: Wilmington.
Linda Farrell: Wilmington! It’s the name of a city …
Linda Farrell: Xavier does a great job of learning how to attack a word. After this lesson he has a strategy to help him break words into syllables and read them. He will need lots of lessons. We start with short vowels, then we move to ‘silent e,’ then we move to vowel teams. So it’s explicit and it’s systematic when we’re teaching him this. Xavier responded beautifully to reading these long words.
[Music]
Linda Farrell: We’re gonna do one more. It is …
Xavier: Electric — cal. Electrical.
Linda Farrell: You got it! That was a good one to end on. High five! Yes!
[Music]
We’d like to thank the wonderful students and families at Windy Hill Elementary School in Calvert County, Maryland. We hope that sharing these experiences will help other children who are learning to read.
Special thanks also to Kelly Cleland, Julie Donovan, Joanne Harbaugh, and their outstanding colleagues at Windy Hill Elementary … and to Leanne Meisinger at Calvert County Public Schools.
We are deeply grateful to Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
Produced by Noel Gunther
Edited by Christian Lindstrom
Graphic Design: Tina Chovanec
Camera: Richard Chisolm
Audio: Dwayne Dell
For more information about teaching reading, please visit
Linda Farrell: That word is “flood-ing.” Say “flooding.”
Chloe: Flooding.
Linda Farrell: Flooding. That means a whole bunch of water goes some place.
Chloe: And it’s flooding the whole, entire …
Linda Farrell: Yeah. It’s that word.
[Graphics] Looking at Reading Interventions: A Reading Rockets Series
[Graphics] One-on-One Intervention with Chloe.
Chloe is in the second grade in Alexandria, Virginia. During the pandemic, she’s also getting virtual lessons from reading expert Linda Farrell.
Linda Farrell: Okay. Hi, Ms. Smoak and Chloe. How was your holiday?
Chloe: It was completely great.
Olu Smoak: It was wonderful. How are you?
Linda Farrell: I am well.
Ms. Farrell and Chloe are working mostly on phonics. But they devote the last ten minutes of each lesson to oral reading. That gives Chloe a chance to apply what she’s learned about phonics and develop her reading fluency, which is our focus today.
[Graphics] Linda Farrell, M.Ed. Founding Partner, Readsters
Linda Farrell: Fluency is often measured as a rate. People think that fluency is how fast you read and actually fluency has three elements: accuracy, its rate, and its expression.
[Graphics] Three Elements of Fluency: Accuracy. Rate. Expression.
And they probably should be approached with struggling readers in that way. If someone is struggling with fluency, first, we want to have them accurate. Next, we get them reading at a reasonable rate, and if they aren’t reading with expression at that point then we work on their expression.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy
Linda Farrell: Today, Chloe, we’re going to read some sections of passages. We’re going to aim for accuracy. What’s accuracy?
Chloe: Accuracy is when you don’t do any, like any words, every word is correct.
Linda Farrell: Yes. That would be 100 percent accuracy.
Olu Smoak: Okay, I’ll leave you two to the lesson. See you afterwards. Have a great time.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: First reading of passage #1
Linda Farrell: Okay, Chloe, let’s get started.
Chloe: When the twins finished eating their apples it was time to get to work. Kim picked red apples. Jill got green apples. The green apples were not sweet.
[Graphics] When the twins finished eating their apples it was time to get to work. Kim picked red apples. Jill got green apples. The green apples were not sweet.
Ms. Farrell starts Chloe with a short passage — about 40 words or so. It’s one that Chloe can probably read accurately on her first try … to give her confidence and to get her warmed up. Ms. Farrell won’t be timing Chloe, so the focus is on reading each word correctly.
So why is accuracy so critical?
Linda Farrell: The reason accuracy at every age is so important is that in early reading in easy texts you can guess and still get the gist, especially if you have good background knowledge. When the students get to 4th and 5th grade, and the pictures go away and the words are harder, guessing is no longer a strategy that works.
Ms. Farrell says that it’s a mistake to allow young readers to guess words or to skip words. We shouldn’t even let close misreads slide – like reading “mommy” instead of “mom” or adding a word that isn’t there. If we allow students to get comfortable with inaccuracy, they can develop habits that are really hard to change later on.
Linda Farrell: You got 100 percent three times in a row, so we’re going to read Set Two next time.
Chloe’s goal is to read three passages correctly the first time she reads them – cold reads. After that, she’ll practice reading more difficult passages until she’s reading 100% accurately at her grade level.
Linda Farrell: But before we do that write 100 percent in the third column.
Linda Farrell: Students are motivated to improve. They have charts. They chart how well they do and that’s very motivating.
Linda Farrell: Oh my gosh. Three 100s in a row. We are going to move to set two. Can you find the passages that say set two?
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: First reading of passage 2
Linda Farrell: Can you find the passages that say Set Two?
Linda Farrell: Uh-huh. That’s it. Okay. And when you’re ready to read, I’m ready to take notes.
Chloe: April [sic] day means tree day, tree day. Trees are important. That is why trees get a special day every year.
[Graphics] Arbor Day means tree day, tree day. Trees are important. That is why trees get a special day every year.
As Chloe reads, Ms. Farrell makes note of any missed words, any self-corrections, and any repetitions. And then she starts her review with what Chloe got right.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: Reviewing Chloe’s reading
Linda Farrell: How many words are in that section?
Chloe: 45? No, 49.
Linda Farrell: 49 words in that section and you got 46 right. And that is 94 percent accuracy.
Chloe charts her work, and then Ms. Farrell reviews the words that Chloe misread. This prepares her for the next reading.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: Prep for second reading of passage 2
Linda Farrell: Underline the first word.
Chloe: Okay.
Linda Farrell: That word is arbor. Read that word.
Chloe: Arbor.
Linda Farrell: Arbor. Arbor means tree. What does arbor mean?
Chloe: Tree.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: Second reading of passage 2
After learning the word “Arbor,” Chloe reads the same section as many times as she needs to until she reads it with 100% accuracy.
Linda Farrell: Here’s the good news. You got 49 words right.
Chloe: Yea!!!
Linda Farrell: Yes. That’s good news and I’m glad you’re happy. Here’s the not so good news. You had three repetitions. You repeated the words you read and you’re only allowed to have two of those repetitions. So you get to read it again.
Linda Farrell: Why do we have to read it one more time?
Chloe: Because I got three overs and I didn’t know what they’re called.
Linda Farrell: They’re called repetitions. You repeated words, but overs works just fine.
Linda Farrell: If a student has the habit of going back and rereading, repeating what they’re reading, or self-correcting what they read, it slows them down and it hurts their comprehension.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: Second reading of Arbor Day section
Arbor Day means tree day. Trees are important.
Chloe: Arbor Day means tree day. Trees are important.
These repeated readings help Chloe improve on this particular passage, and they also help her develop good habits for the long haul. It’s hard work, but Chloe wraps up the day’s lesson with a strong finish.
[Graphics] Working on Accuracy: Third reading of passage #2: Arbor Day
Linda Farrell: How many words do you think you got right? 49 words, 100 percent, and only one self-correction. How do you feel about that? Yes.
[Graphics] Fluency Lesson 2: Reading to Improve Rate. Working on Chloe’s rate of reading accurately
After a few more sessions, Chloe was consistently able to read passages with 100% accuracy. But she was still reading slowly. So now Ms. Farrell will focus on increasing Chloe’s reading rate, or the pace at which Chloe is able to read accurately.
If you think of reading as riding a bicycle, fluency means you can turn the pedals fast enough to have a smooth ride. Pedal too slowly, and the bike falls over. Read too slowly, and you may not be able to understand what you read.
Linda Farrell: Rate has been shown by many studies to correlate very closely with comprehension. Children need to read fast enough so that they can hold their ideas in their mind.
[Graphics] Working on Rate. Chloe’s goal: 60 accurate words per minute
Linda Farrell: So we’re going to start now on working on rate. So Chloe, are you ready to work on rate?
Linda Farrell: The reading rate is generally measured as words correct per minute. Lots of people think it’s how fast or what speed the student is reading, but it’s really a measure of how many words correct do children read in a certain time, usually it’s one minute when we’re assessing. So it is speed. It is how fast they’re reading, but it’s also how accurately they’re reading.
Linda Farrell: So your goal is to read 60 words a minute and not make any mistakes. So, what we’re going to have you do, Chloe, is read for one minute, I’ll time it, but you don’t have to read fast just read naturally. Olu, I think Chloe and I are ready to work together.
Linda Farrell: When we first started working with Chloe she was reading I believe about 38 words correct per minute. And she still, even after we practiced, read relatively slowly. So once she met her accuracy goal, now we look at what’s the 2nd grade middle of year benchmark and it’s around 65 or 70 words a minute in 2nd grade material.
Before Chloe reads, Ms. Farrell will review words that may be difficult to pronounce or that have an unusual spelling pattern. This allows Chloe to do her rate practice without being stumped by a word we wouldn’t expect her to know, yet.
[Graphics] Working on Rate. Previewing words that might be difficult for Chloe.
Linda Farrell: We have one word to review. So that word is on line 44. That word is rough. Can you read rough?
Chloe: Rough.
Linda Farrell: That word is rough. Rough means it’s not smooth.
Chloe: like if I have a bath cloth and it’s rough.
And now Chloe is ready to read.
[Graphics] Working on Rate. First reading of a passage for rate. All cats are related. Tigers, lions, and the cats people have as pets.
Chloe: All cats are related. Tigers, lions, and the cats people have as pets.
Linda Farrell: [alarm] Stop. And that time you read 46 words.
Chloe: Is that good or bad?
Linda Farrell: Well, here is what’s good: you got 100% accurate and you only had one time that you repeated, one time. Chloe: If I had three repeat I would have to start over, but one is repeat okay?
Linda Farrell: One repeat is acceptable, that means it’s okay. Two repeats is acceptable, that means it’s okay. And three repeats is too many.
Chloe: Which is not acceptable.
Linda Farrell: That’s right, it’s not acceptable.
[Graphics] Working on Rate. Second reading of passage 3.
Linda Farrell: Okay, so we get to start again because now we want you to read accurately and we’re going to aim for 60 words a minute.
[Graphics] All cats are related. Tigers, lions, and the cats people have as pets.
Chloe: All cats are related. Tigers, lions, and the cats people have as pets.
Linda Farrell: You got 63 words correct and 100 percent accuracy. You read every word correctly and you didn’t have any self-corrections or repetitions. You made it! You got your goal, girl!
[Graphics] Lesson Three: Expression. Moving from word-by-word reading to reading “like you talk”
Now that Chloe has demonstrated that she can read accurately at 60 words per minute, Ms. Farrell helps Chloe focus on expression. Expressive reading means that students are using phrasing, emphasis, and timing as they read aloud. When children read with expression, they are reading the way they talk, and this usually means that they understand what they’re reading.
[Graphics] Working on Expression
Linda Farrell: This time when you read, could you just read like you talk? You’re reading a little slowly, like what you do is you say all-cats-are-related. And then there’s a period, and then you stop a long time before you go to the next word every time you come to a period. Can you not stop quite so long when you come to a period?
Chloe: Yeah, my dad tells me to or my mom or dad tells me to like stop when you see a period, you kind of like stop. Not trying to take too long. I just take a breathe and then go to the next line. I didn’t know it was taking so long.
Linda Farrell: Yeah, it’s really good the way you’re stopping. What we want you to do is not stop quite so long.
Linda Farrell: Watch me. All cats are related. Tigers, lions and the cats people have as pets all have many things in common. Do you hear how I don’t stop quite as long? Can you try that?
Chloe: Okay. All cats are related. Tigers, lions and the cats people have as pets all have many things in common They all have four toes on their front feet and four toes on their back feet.
[Graphics] Working on Expression. Celebrating Success.
Linda Farrell: You aren’t going to believe how many words you read that time. First of all, 100 percent accuracy. How much accuracy did you get?
Chloe: 100 percent accurate.
Linda Farrell: Yep, you read every single read correctly. You got 80 words a minute.
Chloe: Yeah.
Linda Farrell: 80 words a minute, with 100 percent accuracy is phenomenal.
Linda Farrell: What we do is that we have a reasonable goal that we think she can make. So we just wanted to get her to 60. What was so surprising about Chloe is that once we talked to her about reading like you talk, and I modeled for her, she went up to 80 words a minute!
Now that Chloe’s reading more fluently, her rate goal will be adjusted to 90 words a minute, which is the end of year benchmark for second grade.
What seems like quick improvement is actually due to a lot of hard work. Ms. Farrell says Chloe needs a little more practice — roughly ten minutes at a time, twice a week, for the next month or two.
As Chloe becomes a more accurate and faster reader, she and her mom will enjoy reading together even more.
Linda Farrell: Olu and Chloe, it’s always so much fun to read with you. See you next time.
Olu Smoak: Same here. We enjoyed it. Thank you so much. Bye bye.
Chloe: Bye bye!
This episode of Looking at Reading Interventions was produced by a partnership of the National Education Association and WETA. For more information on the teaching practices featured in this program, please check out our viewer’s guide. You can also download our facilitator’s guide, offering helpful ideas for using this program for professional development. You’ll find both guides at readingrockets.org/interventions.
We are deeply grateful to Chloe and her entire family for allowing us to share Chloe’s experience with reading intervention.
We’d like to thank Linda Farrell, Michael Hunter, and Nicole Lubar of Readsters for their invaluable contributions to this project.
